From Intention to Actual Behavior to Adopt Battery Electric Vehicles: A Systematic Literature Review

4.1.1. Psychological Factors

There are various psychological factors identified in (Table 2). For simplicity, only popular themes are reported as below.

Attitude: Many previous works considered attitude as a major factor affecting BEV adoption intention. However, there is a slight difference among researchers in terms of attitude objects. Particularly, some researchers addressed attitude toward buying BEVs, whereas some stressed the attitude toward BEVs themselves. Xu et al. and Ackaah et al. referred to attitude as a positive or negative evaluation toward a certain behavior and found a strong positive relationship between the attitude of buying a BEV and purchase intention [26, 34]. Müller further pointed out that this relationship is weaker in China as compared to Europe and North America, which might be explained by cultural differences [33]. In addition, attitude towards BEVs and their attributes also positively impact intention [28, 29, 31]. The research of Liu et al. showed that favorable evaluation of BEVs, emission and noise result in higher adoption intention [36].

Perceived behavioral control (PBC): Schmalfuß et al. defined PBC as an individual’s perceived ability to perform a behavior based on his/her internal and external resources [40]. In other words, PBC represents the extent to which a person believes that he/she can do a task. Xu et al. pointed out that PBC is the strongest predictor of adoption intention instead of attitude [26]. The research of Pradeep et al. (2021), Liu et al. (2020), and Du et al. (2018) also confirmed that customers tend to buy BEVs if they assert high affordability and decision-making ability [28, 36, 39].

Subjective norm/social influence: Ackaah et al. described subjective norm as an individual’s perceived social pressure of whether to perform a behavior or not [34]. Krishnan & Koshy posited that a person can be influenced by social views and others’ interests in peer groups [43]. Thus, to promote BEVs adoption, it is necessary to make BEVs familiar to public groups, maybe through public exhibitions and free test drives. Du et al. indicated that the subjective norm positively impacts purchase intention, therefore, people are more likely to buy BEVs if they receive recommendations from others in their social network [39]. The authors argued that BEV purchase intention is based on herd mentality or peer pressure, which is socially influenced.

EV experience: EV experience could be understood as previous exposure to EVs. Chen et al. suggested that BEV adoption is a “learning by driving” process in which users learn and form attitudes while driving [11]. More exposure results in higher familiarity and stronger affinity, increasing the chance that they will adopt a new BEV in the future. The study of Kim et al. showed similar results and recommended the test drive as a useful promotion method to strengthen adoption intention in the South Korean market [48]. As BEVs are a new form of transportation, most people are unaware and have limited knowledge. Schmalfuß et al. proved that people having direct experience (using experience) with BEVs evaluate them more favorably and express a stronger willingness to purchase [40]. Similarly, Hinnüber et al. conducted a test drive experiment with 114 German participants and concluded that the first-time BEV driving experience enhances participants’ perception of the product and increases the adoption intention [50].

Motivations: Motivations are the forces that drive people’s behaviors. The study of Rezvani et al. pointed out 3 types of motivations [27]. Firstly, gain motivation is the rational trade-off between cost and benefits when the customer adopts BEVs. If the perceived comparisons between benefits and cost are positive, customers are more likely to adopt BEVs. Secondly, norm motivation or personal norm refers to individual moral obligations to perform a behavior. The awareness of environmental problems and perceived individual responsibility encourage customers to engage in sustainable behaviors such as buying an environmentally-friendly car. This argument is also supported by the research findings of Dong et al. [42] and Du et al. [39]. Thirdly, hedonic motivation, which includes emotions and feelings, was found to be an important predictor of BEV adoption. It is posited that customers aim at positive emotions and feelings during consumption and avoid negative ones. Therefore, the adoption intention will be strengthened if BEVs bring a pleasant and enjoyable driving experience [46, 51].

Environmental concern: Environmental concern refers to people’s consciousness towards environmental problems. As BEVs help reduce CO2 emissions, air pollution, and climate change impact, BEV adoption is considered an environmentally friendly act. Therefore, it is influenced not only by self-interest gains but also by benefits to the environment [54]. As the awareness of environmental issues is rising, intending to adopt BEVs is a way to decrease perceived concern and show social responsibility [46].

Symbol: Products usually carry symbolic meanings that express individual identity. The study of Liu et al. demonstrated the impact of 3 types of symbols on BEVs’ adoption intention [55]. Particularly, the status symbol stands for the perceived social position granted by owning a car, which is considered as a luxury product. Meanwhile, environmentalism symbol creates a positive image of environmental protection for the owners. Finally, the innovation symbol is associated with being innovative and advancing to the times.

4.1.2. Behavioral Factors

Travel distance and frequency: Lu et al. concluded that potential adopters of BEVs prefer short distance travelling (less than 40 km) because of BEVs’ limitation in range and lack of charging infrastructure [56]. Similarly, Chen et al. pointed out that long driving distance discourages people from purchasing a BEV [11]. Nazari et al. also reported that drivers who travel more frequently exhibit less interest in BEVs [58].

Environmentally friendly habits: Habit describes the extent to which individuals tend to conduct an act automatically based on previous behavior. In other words, past behaviors could predict how people behave in the future. In the case of BEVs, customers who have driven a BEV before show more interest in buying and using them [51]. Additionally, sustainable habits such as solar panel adoption, recycling, changing diets, carsharing, and other eco-friendly behaviors also have a spill-over effect on BEV adoption intentions [11, 37, 58, 59].

4.1.3. Product Attribute Factors

According to Table 2, environmental performance, range, charging time, price and cost are the most common factors in previous studies.

Environmental performance: Environmental performance of BEVs refers to their benefits towards the environment. Xu et al. stated that BEV usage can save natural resources and reduce gas emissions [26]. As more people are concerned about environmental issues, it is obvious that BEVs’ environmental performance is a positive predictor of adoption intention. According to Haustein & Jensen, although facing some technical drawbacks, the environmental performance of BEVs attracts purchase intention of customers as they could reduce noise pollution and local emissions and promote renewable energy sources [35]. In a study investigating the purchase intention of conventional car drivers, it was reported that environmental and economic attributes of BEVs are the determinants of purchase decisions, meanwhile, instrumental attributes play an insignificant role. It was explained that conventional car drivers who intend to buy a BEV as their next vehicle weigh instrumental attributes less critical than environmental performance [41]. However, in another research conducted by Berneiser et al., environmental performance was found to have a minor positive impact on purchase intention. This result was explained by the fact that some environmental benefits of BEVs are still questioned, for example, the production and disposal of batteries, recycle issues, and fossil fuel electricity sources [47]. In general, BEV adoption intention depends much on the public’s perception of its environmental performance.

Range: The range of BEVs refers to the distance of travelling after a full charge. In comparison to ICEVs, BEVs are limited by battery capacity, thus, they have a shorter cruising range. Range concern has been an inhibitor preventing the customer from purchasing BEVs. A recent survey reported that the BEV choice rate would improve from 46% to 81% if the cruising range were increased to the same as ICEVs [ 56 ]. Ščasný et al. found that Polish customers are willing to pay an extra EUR 1000 for each additional 100 km in the BEV range [ 62 ]. In a qualitative research interviewing 227 experts in transportation about barriers to BEV diffusion, range was the most mentioned factor [ 30 ]. Many interviewees stated the fact that BEVs are incapable of long trips. Although the current range of BEVs is sufficient for daily travel, it is difficult for customers to accept a vehicle that cannot serve all trip purposes.

Charging time : Charging time refers to the time needed to fully charge a BEV. Chen et al. surveyed 4885 respondents in 5 Nordic countries and found that 87% of participants considered charging time an important attribute of BEV [ 11 ]. The study also showed a positive relationship between shorter charging time and adoption intention. Li et al. pointed out that an ICEV only takes 5 minutes to refuel, the normal charging time of a BEV is about 8 hours. The availability of a quick charge option reduces the charging time to 1 hour, but it is still a barrier to adoption intention [ 25 ].

Price and cost: Customers are less likely to adopt BEVs if they do not have the ability to pay. The research of Jreige et al. demonstrated a negative relationship between adoption intention and purchase price and driving cost [ 60 ]. Li et al. stated that as the cost per kilometre of electricity is cheaper than gasoline, BEVs offer lower fuel costs as compared to ICEVs, which is a positive feature attracting customer intention [ 25 ]. Krishnan & Koshy posited that high purchase prices and battery costs are preventing customer’s intention to adopt BEVs; however, the authors also noted that low fuel and maintenance costs are advantages of BEVs [ 43 ].

4.1.4. Contextual Factors

Charging infrastructure: Since BEVs depend solely on electricity, charging infrastructure plays an important role in adoption intention. Jia & Chen proved that the availability of charging infrastructure (including charging stations along highways, at the workplace, and in local areas) can positively affect adoption intention [57]. Compared to conventional vehicles, BEVs take a longer time to refuel/recharge, which is inconvenient while driving. Thus fast charging technology and fast charging station are necessary to increase the adoption intention. The research of Ščasný et al. demonstrated that each additional hour of charging time decreases the willingness to pay by EUR 300 per vehicle; meanwhile, fast charging station availability increases the willingness to pay by EUR 2000 per vehicle [62].

Monetary incentive policies: The term refers to financial incentive policies. Xu et al. suggested that these policies could include purchase subsidies, tax exemptions, preferential insurance policies, and allowable loan amounts for BEVs [26]. Lu et al. recommended tax reduction, purchase subsidy, and vehicle use subsidy as measures to improve adoption intention in the context of China [56]. Similar effect of monetary incentive policies is found in the US [57] and South Korea [48]. Additionally, personal carbon trading (PCT) influences adoption intention positively [25]. PCT is a policy that imposes a fixed credit on personal carbon emissions and allows individuals to trade their unused credits. Since BEV adopters have fewer carbon emissions, they spend fewer emission credits. As a result, they can sell the remaining credits to people with excessive needs in exchange for financial benefits. Li et al. showed that PCT is more effective than other monetary policies such as carbon tax, tax exemption, and charging discount [24].

Non-monetary incentive policies: Lu et al. examined the effect of restriction policies on BEV adoption intention in China and confirmed the negative impact of license plate restrictions and driving restrictions [56]. Currently, these policies are only applied to conventional vehicles, but if they are applied to BEVs, the choice rate will drop from about 46% to less than 25%. Additionally, bus line driving could be a good alternative for financial subsidies as it offers BEV owners more convenience during peak hours [56]. Meanwhile, public parking benefits such as priority lots and free parking fees could also enhance adoption intention [48].

Marketing, distribution and after-sales service: Few studies explored the impact of marketing, distribution, and after-sales services on the acceptability of BEVs. Krishnan & Koshy concluded that manufacturers and distributors should develop more showrooms and service centers, reinforce a strong brand image through advertising and other marketing activities, and improve postsales services to increase the adoption intention [43].

4.1.5. Demographic Factors

Age: Most studies suggested that young people tend to express a higher intention to adopt BEVs. For example, the research of Jia & Chen indicated that people under 35 are more interested in BEVs as they have a favorable attitude towards new technologies such as BEVs [57]. Lu et al. pointed out that adoption intention decreases with age [56]. However, Kim et al. found that people in the old age group have a higher intention to adopt BEVs in South Korea [48]. Therefore, the impact of age might vary among countries.

Education: All selected papers agreed on the positive impact of high education on BEVs adoption intention [48, 56-58]. Lu et al. found that people with a graduate degree show more interest in BEVs than others [56]. Compared to conventional vehicle owners, BEV owners have higher educational attainment (bachelor’s degree or higher). Kim et al. reported that people holding a high school degree or below are less likely to adopt BEVs [48]. It seems that people with high education are better aware of environmental issues, thus, they are more likely to take action to protect the environment.

Vehicle ownership: The study of Lu et al. in China revealed that people who have owned a vehicle tend to purchase BEVs [56]. The authors explained that as most vehicles are conventional and subjected to driving restriction policies, people adopt BEV as a supplement for travelling. In addition, Nazari et al. concluded that people who have already owned a BEV or HEV are more likely to purchase another BEV as they have more experience and knowledge [58].

Gender: Most researchers show that BEVs are products for men except for the study of Kim et al. [48]. However, most papers do not clearly explain the association between gender and BEV adoption intention.

Income: In Nordic countries, Chen et al. found that high income is positively associated with adoption intention as BEV purchase price is quite high [11]. In Germany, Berneiser et al. also reported similar results, this is due to the expensive purchase price of BEVs compared to conventional vehicles that only people with medium to high income can afford [47]. However, Lu et al. found that people with low income (less than USD 28.000 per year) are more likely to adopt BEVs in China [56]. The underlying reason might be due to the great BEV subsidies in China that make it more popular and affordable for low-income people.

4.2.1. Psychological Factors

Zhou et al. identified 2 psychological predictors of BEVs adoption behavior, including intention and satisfaction with incentive policies [51]. Intention refers to people’s commitment to action, thus as intention becomes stronger, the actual behavior is more likely to occur. Intention is one of the most important predictors of behavior, which was previously verified by many studies. Satisfaction with incentive policies is the extent to which drivers compare the perceived to the expected value of incentive policies. The authors argued that it is satisfaction that increases the adoption rate, not the policies themselves.

The study of Brückmann et al. found 3 psychological factors affecting the adoption behavior of BEVs, namely, technology affinity, green party preference, and environmental awareness [64]. Technology affinity stands for human technological enthusiasm, as BEVs are innovative products tech-enthusiasts are more likely to adopt. Regarding green party preferences, voters who prefer pro-environment parties have a higher chance of being adopters of BEVs. Finally, people who exhibit a strong sense of environmental consciousness tend to adopt BEVs in reality.

4.2.2. Behavioral Factors

Car sharing: The study of Brückmann et al. investigated the impact of some pro-environment travel behaviors on BEVs actual adoption [64]. The results showed that the act of carsharing significantly improves BEVs adoption behavior. However, the same effect could not be confirmed in the case of public transport subscription as it is statistically insignificant. The study called for further research on particular behavioral factors that might lead to BEVs actual adoption.

4.2.3. Contextual Factors

Charging infrastructure: Similar to intention, charging infrastructure plays a major role in determining adoption behavior. Based on data at the county level in Virginia (US), Jia & Chen documented that the density of charging points is highly correlated with the number of BEV registration numbers [57]. The same result was found in China [65] and Sweden [66], in which the availability of public charging increases the actual adoption of BEVs. However, Mukherjee & Ryan reported that a long distance to the nearest public charging stations positively influences BEV adoption in Ireland, although the effect is quite small [32]. According to the authors, public charging stations are likely located in nonresidential areas while actual adopters live in the suburbs. Additionally, as most BEV drivers charge at home, they do not need nearby public charging stations.

Monetary incentive policies: Kalthaus & Sun reported that a 1% raise in monetary subsidies could lead to a 0.5% increase in newly registered BEVs [65]. In addition, Narassimhan & Johnson reported that a 1% raise in tax incentives results in a 1.15% increase in BEV purchases [67]. In general, subsidies and tax incentives are useful tools to boost BEV adoption in reality.

Non-monetary incentive policies: The research of Kalthaus & Sun examined the effect of 2 particular nonmonetary policies in favor of EV drivers, which are exemptions from license-plate lotteries and auctions [65]. The result showed that the aforementioned policies could promote the diffusion of BEVs with substantial effect. Egnér & Trosvik suggested that public procurement policy should be taken into consideration [66]. Particularly, the authors proved that municipalities owning more BEVs also witness a higher number of personal-owned BEVs. Therefore, BEVs public procurement policy should be set for municipalities so that they become lead users to spread the adoption of BEVs among community members.

4.2.4. Demographic Factors

Age: Jia & Chen found a discrepancy in the impact of age on stated intention and actual adoption behavior [57]. In particular, according to the vehicle choice experiment, young respondents (below 35 years old) are more likely to express the intention to adopt BEVs. However, according to the real-world EV registration data, old individuals (above 55 years old) are more likely to own BEVs. Mukherjee & Ryan reported similar results in which young age from 19 to 34 negatively influences adoption behavior [32]. A possible explanation is that young individuals might have low incomes; thus, they are less likely to own BEVs in reality.

Gender: Gender shows a consistent effect on both adoption intentions and behavior. Men state a greater interest in BEVs [57], while women show less preference [64].

Education: High education is a positive predictor of BEVs adoption behavior. People holding bachelor’s degrees or higher tend to own BEVs [57]. Mukherjee & Ryan implied that these individuals can afford BEVs as they achieve higher income and social class [32].

Accommodation ownership: Brückmann et al. stated that moving from rented accommodation to an owner-occupied flat or an owned house can increase the adoption chance by 10% and 12%, respectively [64]. Mukherjee & Ryan explained that rented accommodations usually do not offer secure parking space for charging as well as indoor charging infrastructure, thus, it is less likely for people living in a rented house to own a BEV [32].