Electric Vehicle Shared Services: A Decade of Innovation, Challenges, and Transformative Impact on Sustainable Urban Mobility — A Systematic Literature Review

1.1. Background

Electric Vehicle shared services (EVSS) have gained increasing recognition as a pivotal element of modern transportation systems, offering a sustainable alternative to traditional vehicle ownership models [1]. Growing concerns about environmental sustainability and urban congestion have catalyzed a shift toward shared mobility solutions, particularly those utilizing electric vehicles (EVs) [2]. The rapid advancement of technology, coupled with increased governmental incentives and policy support, has further accelerated the expansion of EVSS [3]. However, while the EV market continues to grow, a critical gap remains in understanding users’ experience and satisfaction, which are fundamental to driving the widespread adoption of these services [4].

User experience encompasses an individual's interaction with a service, significantly influencing their satisfaction levels and future behavioural intentions [5]. These intentions include continued service usage and the likelihood of recommending the service to others [6]. Positive user experiences with EVSS can foster consumer loyalty and facilitate market penetration [7], ultimately contributing to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions associated with fossil fuel consumption [8]. However, recent studies suggest that the complexity of integrating EVSS into urban transport systems requires a deeper investigation into how user perceptions are influenced by factors such as digital accessibility, real-time service monitoring, and dynamic pricing strategies [9].

Despite the growing interest in EVs and their potential benefits [10], empirical research comparing user experiences between EVSS and traditional car-sharing or private vehicle use remains limited [11]. Previous studies have predominantly focused on adoption strategies for EVs while overlooking the practical aspects of user satisfaction with these services. Studies indicate that user satisfaction is influenced by multiple factors, including vehicle reliability [12], accessibility of charging infrastructure [13], and overall service quality [7]. However, emerging literature emphasizes that the success of EVSS depends on psychological determinants such as trust in autonomous vehicle technology, perceived environmental impact, and alignment with urban mobility preferences [14]. This identifies a knowledge gap that this systematic literature review (SLR) intends to fill by synthesizing key findings on EVSS.

Moreover, psychological factors influencing user acceptance of EVSS highlight the importance of understanding consumer perceptions and experiences [7]. While the literature suggests that EVs offer numerous benefits, such as lower operational costs and environmental advantages [15], their market share remains relatively low compared to traditional combustion-engine vehicles. This discrepancy underscores the necessity of a comprehensive study that explores the nuances of user experiences within the context of EVSS [16].

By identifying factors that contribute to user satisfaction and perceived comfort [17], this review aims to bridge the existing knowledge gap and provide insights into how EVSS can be optimized to better meet consumer needs [18]. In particular, this research examines how technological [19], regulatory [20], and societal factors shape the adoption of EVSS [21]. Additionally, this review integrates recent perspectives on the role of smart infrastructure development and digital twin technology in enhancing service reliability and user engagement [22]. It also examines the role of government policies and innovations in overcoming barriers to implementation [23], which are critical to scaling EVSS in urban settings. By incorporating these novel perspectives, this study aims to provide a more contemporary and holistic analysis of the evolution and future potential of EVSS.

1.2. Research Objectives

This systematic literature review (SLR) aims to achieve the following research objectives, aligning with the gaps identified in the background and responding to the emerging need for deeper insights into the field of EVSS:

• To synthesize the key findings from curated articles in the Scopus database concerning EVSS. This objective seeks to comprehensively summarize the contributions of existing research in the field, providing a foundation for understanding the current state of knowledge.
• To conduct an in-depth analysis of the 52 selected articles that meet the inclusion criteria, focusing on identifying common research patterns, methodological approaches, and significant findings. The analysis helps uncover gaps in the literature and offers insights into future research directions.
• To identify and analyze global research trends in EVSS, investigating the key factors influencing the adoption and growth of EV-sharing business models across various geographical and economic contexts. This objective provides a broader understanding of the factors driving EVSS development in different regions, highlighting regional differences and trends.
• To examine the major challenges and barriers faced in implementing EVSS from technological, regulatory, and societal perspectives. This objective explores how technological innovations and government policies contribute to overcoming these challenges, providing a comprehensive understanding of the hurdles involved in EVSS adoption.
• To evaluate the environmental and social impacts of adopting EVSS, specifically in reducing carbon emissions and improving access to sustainable transportation. This objective assesses how the widespread adoption of EVSS contributes to environmental sustainability and social equity, particularly in urban settings.
• To investigate the role of EVSS in mitigating urban challenges such as traffic congestion, pollution, and limited access to sustainable transportation. This objective explores how EVSS can enhance urban mobility, improve air quality, and contribute to the overall sustainability of urban transport systems.

1.3. Research Questions (RQ)

To achieve the research objectives, the following research questions are proposed:

RQ1 What are the key findings from the articles curated using the PRISMA method from Scopus, covering the past decade (2014-2023) on EVSS?

RQ2 What in-depth insights can be derived from the 52 eligible articles on EVSS in Scopus?

RQ3 How has research on EVSS evolved globally, and what are the key factors influencing the adoption and growth of EV-sharing models across different geographical and economic contexts?

RQ4 What are the main challenges and barriers to implementing EVSS, including technological, regulatory, and societal acceptance issues? How do technological innovations and government policies address these challenges?

RQ5 What are the environmental and social impacts of adopting EVSS, particularly concerning carbon emission reduction and enhanced accessibility to sustainable transportation?

RQ6 How does EVSS contribute to mitigating urban challenges, such as traffic congestion and pollution, while enhancing access to sustainable transportation in urban areas?

1.4. Structure of the Article

The article is organized as follows: it begins with a methodology section describing the SLR approach used to collect, evaluate, and synthesize relevant studies on EVSS. The results section presents the key findings related to the research questions, focusing on factors influencing user satisfaction, challenges in adoption, and psychological and social factors. In the discussion, the findings are compared with existing literature to highlight new insights and identify gaps. The article concludes with implications for both theory and practice, offering recommendations for future research and practical strategies to improve EVSS and enhance adoption.

3.1. SLR Methodology

This study employs the Systematic Literature Review (SLR) methodology, adhering to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines to ensure a comprehensive and transparent review process. PRISMA is essential in this research for several reasons that support the quality and reliability of systematic review outcomes [29]. One of PRISMA’s primary strengths is its ability to facilitate a more structured and robust analysis. By following the PRISMA flow and checklist, researchers can ensure that each step in the review process, from the literature search to the selection of relevant studies, is conducted with methodological rigor. PRISMA requires researchers to justify their decisions during the selection and analysis of studies, which supports transparency in reporting the procedures followed.

Furthermore, PRISMA aids in identifying and minimizing bias in the literature selection process [30]. This guideline enhances the selection and evaluation of articles, making them more objective and replicable and ensuring that the review process is not influenced by subjective judgment. Such objectivity is particularly crucial for increasing the reliability of findings in SLR research, especially when evaluating multidisciplinary literature or studies with varying research methodologies. PRISMA has proven to be an effective tool for improving the quality of systematic research. As a widely adopted guideline in scholarly literature, it is recognized by many reputable international journals and research bodies for providing a clear structure to researchers. PRISMA has been extensively utilized in the health sciences and has been extended to various other disciplines, including technology, social sciences, and education [31].

By adhering to the PRISMA standard, this study ensures the accuracy and consistency of the SLR methodology and reassures readers that the review process follows established and accountable procedures [29]. This adherence is critical for enhancing the credibility of the findings and supporting the trustworthiness of the research within the academic community. Overall, the adoption of PRISMA in this SLR establishes a strong foundation for ensuring high transparency, thorough analysis, and reliable conclusions, aligning with international standards for systematic reviews and meta-analyses.

3.2. Application of the PICO Framework in EVSS Research

This study employs the Population, Intervention, Comparison, and Outcome (PICO) framework to systematically examine user experiences in EVSS. The framework provides a structured approach to analyzing factors influencing user satisfaction, behavioural adoption, and the broader impact of shared EV mobility [32]. By utilizing PICO, this research ensures a comprehensive synthesis of existing literature, facilitating comparative insights into emerging trends and challenges within the EV-sharing ecosystem.

3.3. Screening and Selection Process

This study employs an SLR methodology to explore relevant literature on shared services for EVs. The PRISMA guidelines were adopted to ensure a rigorous and transparent review process. Each step of the PRISMA framework was carefully implemented to minimize bias, enhance transparency, and strengthen the validity of the findings. The detailed steps of the screening and selection process are illustrated in the PRISMA flow diagram (Fig. 1) and are described as follows:

3.3.1. Identification

The identification phase began with a comprehensive literature search conducted in the Scopus database, selected due to its broad coverage of high-impact, peer-reviewed journals and conference proceedings [66]. Compared to other academic databases such as Web of Science (WoS), IEEE Xplore, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar, Scopus provides a more extensive repository of interdisciplinary research, particularly in areas related to sustainable mobility and transportation technology [67]. Furthermore, Scopus offers advanced search functionalities, including citation analysis and keyword mapping, which facilitate the refinement of relevant studies [68].

To ensure a comprehensive yet focused search, specific keywords related to EVSS were used. The search query included “electric vehicle” OR “electric bike” OR “electric car” AND “share services” OR “sharing” in the TITLE-ABS-KEY fields. This combination was formulated based on previous systematic reviews in the field of shared mobility and keyword co-occurrence analyses from existing studies [69]. The inclusion of both “electric bike” and “electric car” ensured that the search captured a broad spectrum of EVSS, including micro-mobility solutions and car-sharing platforms.

The initial search yielded 2,707 records, reflecting the growing academic interest in EV-sharing technologies. However, to ensure that the findings remained relevant to the current technological landscape and policy developments, a temporal refinement was applied, limiting the search to publications from 2014 to 2023. This timeframe was chosen because:

• 2014 marks the beginning of significant policy initiatives and advancements in EVSS, such as the launch of large-scale electric car-sharing programs in major cities [70]
• Rapid technological improvements in battery efficiency and charging infrastructure have accelerated since 2014, influencing the feasibility and scalability of EV-sharing systems [71]
• Most recent studies (2018–2023) focus on integrating digital platforms, AI-driven fleet management, and smart mobility ecosystems, which were not widely explored in earlier research [69]

As a result of this refinement, 613 records published outside the specified timeframe were excluded, leaving 2,094 records for further screening. The next phase involved filtering these records based on document type, language, and accessibility to ensure that only high-quality, peer-reviewed studies were included in the final analysis.

3.5. Study Selection and Sample Size Justification

This SLR determined the sample size based on a rigorous study selection process aligned with the PRISMA methodology and the PICO framework. The selection criteria were designed to ensure the inclusion of high-quality and relevant studies that contribute to a comprehensive understanding of EVSS. The final sample size of 52 studies was obtained through a systematic screening of Scopus-indexed articles, focusing on peer-reviewed journal papers published between 2014 and 2023. The rationale behind this sample size is based on the principle of theoretical saturation, where additional studies did not yield significantly new insights into the research questions.

A qualitative synthesis approach was applied, emphasizing thematic analysis rather than statistical inference to ensure the adequacy of the sample size in achieving reliable and meaningful results. Unlike primary empirical studies that require formal statistical tests to determine sample adequacy, SLRs rely on predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria to ensure comprehensiveness and relevance. Furthermore, a citation-based approach was used to assess the impact and representativeness of selected studies, ensuring that key contributions from leading researchers and institutions were incorporated.

4.1. RQ1 What are the Key Findings from the Articles Curated using the PRISMA Method from Scopus, Covering the Past Decade (2014-2023) on EVSS?

Publications on EVs in the context of shared services have demonstrated significant growth over the past decade. Early research in this domain was limited, but since then, there has been a steady annual increase in both the number of publications and their citation impact. By 2023, the field had produced 1,183 publications with 39,065 citations, highlighting the growing global interest in EVSS as a critical aspect of shared services.

The increase in publication numbers aligns with rising global awareness of the importance of EVs as a sustainable transportation solution. Each phase of growth in publications reflects heightened attention from the research community and stakeholders, underscoring the role of EVSS in advancing the adoption of EVs (Table 2).

The table and graph depicting the annual distribution of publications (see Fig. 2) underscore the quantitative growth in EVSS-related research over the past decade. The graphical representation highlights an exponential increase in EVSS research output, reflecting the academic community’s response to the urgent need for sustainable transportation solutions.

The data reveal that while China leads in the total number of publications, the United States demonstrates a higher average citation rate. This indicates that U.S-based publications may have a more significant influence within the global research community, as they are frequently cited and regarded as highly relevant and impactful in advancing knowledge on EVSS (Table 3).

The table of country contributions illustrates that several advanced economies play pivotal roles in advancing EVSS research. Alongside China and the United States, countries such as the United Kingdom, Italy, and Germany have substantially contributed to EVSS-related studies. This trend underscores the interdisciplinary nature of EV adoption, which involves stakeholders across various regions.

4.2. RQ2 What In-depth Insights can be Derived from the 52 Eligible Articles on EVSS in Scopus?

A detailed analysis of the 52 eligible articles on EVSS indexed in Scopus reveals significant trends and insights. As summarized in Table 4, these articles were distributed across 20 peer-reviewed journals. Approximately 85% of the articles employed quantitative methodologies, reflecting the dominance of numerical data and empirical analysis in this field. This indicates a strong reliance on statistical evidence to assess the effectiveness, trends, and adoption of EVSS technology.

4.3. Key Findings from Journal Analysis

Among the analyzed journals, Sustainability (Switzerland) published the most articles (16, Q1), highlighting the critical focus on sustainability as a primary dimension of EVSS. Energies contributed 12 articles (Q1), underscoring the importance of renewable energy and efficiency in the EVSS domain. Other journals, such as Applied Sciences and Transportation Research Part A, provided insights into technological innovation and transport policy, with three articles each. This distribution suggests that EVSS research is primarily driven by evidence-based policy initiatives aimed at advancing energy sustainability and transport innovation.

4.4. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Approaches

The dominance of quantitative methodologies (85%) indicates the widespread use of statistical models, mathematical simulations, and large-scale data analyses to evaluate EVSS efficiency, predict demand patterns [72], and measure environmental impacts, including carbon emissions and energy consumption. The remaining 15% of the articles employed qualitative or mixed-methods approaches, often focusing on user experiences, policy challenges, and public perceptions of EVSS.

4.5. Identified Research Themes

Based on leading journals such as Sustainability and Environment, studies highlight the role of EVSS in reducing carbon emissions through shared mobility and the integration of renewable energy systems. Operational efficiency focuses on optimizing route planning, fleet management, and charging strategies to enhance service efficiency. Additionally, studies analyze regulations, incentives, and challenges associated with implementing EVSS in urban transport systems [73]. Approximately 80% of the articles were published in Q1 journals, indicating the high quality and global relevance of EVSS research (Table 5).

4.6. Research Insights by EV’s Type

E-Car (21 articles), as the dominant category, primarily addresses operational efficiency. Studies evaluate energy consumption during usage and its impact on vehicle energy efficiency [74]. Analyses of emission reduction highlight the significant carbon reduction potential of adopting e-cars as alternatives to traditional vehicles [75], as well as policy and incentives. The research examines government policies, including subsidies and tax incentives, that drive the widespread adoption of e-cars [11]. Findings suggest that e-cars hold significant potential to become the backbone of shared mobility, especially in urban areas with adequate charging infrastructure [76].

E-Bike (10 Articles) explores its role as an eco-friendly, short-distance mobility solution. Trends indicate the growing adoption of e-bikes for daily commutes, particularly in densely populated urban areas [72]. Integrating e-Bikes with bicycle lanes and sustainable urban mobility ecosystems is a recurring theme [55].

E-scooters (12 Articles) investigate their role as micro-mobility options in urban environments. Key areas of focus include analyzing e-scooter use in multimodal transportation systems [77], examining user safety challenges and the need for effective public-use regulations [78], and evaluating e-scooters’ potential to reduce reliance on conventional motorized vehicles [73].

The remaining studies (9 Articles) examine supporting elements of EVSS, focusing on availability, optimal location, and fast-charging technologies to support EV services [79]. Studies analyze user perceptions of convenience and cost efficiency in EVSS [80] and emphasize EVs’ role in enhancing energy efficiency and mobility management within smart city ecosystems [81].

The studies reviewed provide a holistic understanding of the infrastructure and technological requirements for optimizing EVSS. This research establishes a robust foundation for future advancements in policy-making, technology development, and best practices that encourage sustainable EV adoption.

4.7. RQ3 How has Research on EVSS Evolved Globally, and what are the Key Factors Influencing the Adoption and Growth of EV-sharing Models across different Geographical and Economic Contexts?

Research on EVSS has grown significantly over the past decade, primarily driven by increasing global awareness of sustainability and the urgent need to reduce carbon emissions [82]. From 2014 to 2023, studies predominantly focused on advancements in battery technology and policy incentives [11], implementation efficiency, and operational optimization [83], as well as empirical investigations into the environmental impacts of EV adoption, such as reductions in CO₂ emissions and air pollution [84]. Research also includes adaptive policies and behavioural studies [23]. Global research priorities during this decade included integrating innovative urban frameworks, leveraging digital technologies to enhance service connectivity and efficiency [81], and developing sustainable transport policies such as green mobility incentives. Additionally, regional studies analyzed contextual challenges and opportunities for EV adoption across developed and developing economies [85].

Several contextual factors influence the adoption and growth of EVSS [86]. Innovations in battery technology, including increased energy storage capacity, reduced charging time, and lower battery costs, have been identified as primary drivers of EV adoption [87]. Furthermore, the availability of strategically located and well-maintained charging infrastructure significantly impacts the speed of EV service adoption [88]. Lower ownership and operational costs of EVs compared to conventional vehicles serve as strong motivators despite higher initial purchase costs. Government subsidies, such as tax reductions and financial support for infrastructure development, are also pivotal in promoting EVSS [89]. Shifts in user behaviour, including a growing preference for environmentally friendly mobility solutions and shared economy models, have further driven EV adoption [90]. Moreover, user perceptions regarding convenience, accessibility, and safety are critical determinants of widespread acceptance [91]. Pro-environment policies, such as restrictions on fossil-fuel vehicles in urban areas, have accelerated the implementation of EVSS [84]. Additionally, government initiatives that facilitate public-private collaborations, fiscal policies, and infrastructure investments have significantly contributed to the expansion of EV services [92].

The evolution of EVSS varies significantly across geographical and economic contexts [93]. Regions such as China, Europe, and the United States benefit from advanced charging infrastructure and innovative technology ecosystems that support EV adoption. Furthermore, strong policy frameworks in these regions have facilitated innovation and the rapid expansion of EVSS [85]. In contrast, nations in Southeast Asia, India, and Latin America face challenges such as limited infrastructure and high initial implementation costs [94]. However, these markets have significant opportunities for micro-mobility solutions like e-bikes and e-scooters, which provide cost-effective and efficient mobility alternatives [95].

4.8. RQ4 What are the main Challenges and Barriers to Implementing EVSS, including Technological, Regulatory, and Societal Acceptance Issues? How do Technological Innovations and Government Policies Address these Challenges?

Recent research highlights that while EVSS holds significant potential to reduce carbon emissions and enhance mobility efficiency, various challenges still hinder their implementation [42]. The need for sufficient charging infrastructure, particularly in suburban and rural areas, remains a significant barrier to EVSS adoption [96]. Furthermore, charging times for EVs remain considerably longer compared to refueling conventional vehicles, limiting the operational efficiency of shared services [97]. Although battery costs have decreased over time, the initial purchase price of EVs remains relatively high. In addition, the limited lifespan of batteries and the high cost of their replacement further constrain the adoption of EVSS [98].

Regulatory barriers, such as inconsistent policies across countries or regions, pose significant challenges to the adoption of EVSS [78]. This inconsistency is particularly evident in the need for coordinated charging technology and standardized infrastructure interoperability. Moreover, insufficient fiscal incentives in developing countries, compared to developed nations, exacerbate these challenges. Another notable issue is the absence of comprehensive legal frameworks addressing insurance, safety, and liability concerns for service providers operating EVSS in public spaces [5].

Public perceptions of EVs also present barriers to their adoption. Concerns regarding range anxiety (i.e., limited driving range) [99], vehicle reliability [12], and charging infrastructure accessibility significantly deter potential users [100]. Additionally, the perception that EVs are less convenient than conventional vehicles persists, especially in emerging markets. The successful implementation of EVSS necessitates a cultural shift from private ownership to shared mobility models [18]. User acceptance of shared EV technology is further influenced by demographic, economic, and educational factors [74].

Technological innovations are crucial to addressing the barriers to implementing EVSS [101]. Advances in battery technology, including increased energy density and fast-charging solutions, help mitigate range limitations and reduce charging times [93]. Emerging technologies such as solid-state batteries and intelligent battery management systems also have the potential to lower costs and extend battery lifespans [102]. Digitalization enables real-time fleet management, route optimization, and vehicle performance monitoring, significantly improving operational efficiency [19]. The development of smart charging stations integrated with renewable energy sources, such as solar photovoltaic systems, accelerates the transition to sustainable EVSS [103].

Governments play a strategic role in facilitating the implementation of EVSS through effective policies and incentives [104]. Key interventions include investments in expanding and making charging station networks more affordable, as well as policies supporting renewable energy-based infrastructure to enhance the appeal of EV services [105].

Economic incentives, such as subsidies for operational costs and EV ownership, tax reductions, and grants, can significantly accelerate the adoption of EVSS. Governments can also offer financial incentives to companies integrating EV technologies into their shared mobility models. Regulatory support facilitates cross-regional EV adoption, including standardizing charging technologies and establishing interoperability frameworks [79].

Additionally, pro-environment policies, such as restrictions on conventional vehicles in urban areas, can drive the transition to EV-based services [106]. Public education and awareness campaigns highlighting the environmental and economic benefits of EVSS are essential for fostering social acceptance and encouraging adoption [107].

4.9. RQ5 What are the Environmental and Social Impacts of Adopting EVSS, particularly Concerning Carbon Emission Reduction and Enhanced Accessibility to Sustainable Transportation?

The adoption of EVSS plays a crucial role in global efforts to reduce carbon emissions and enhance environmental sustainability. Empirical studies indicate that transitioning from fossil-fuel-powered vehicles to EVs in shared mobility services contributes substantially to carbon emission reductions [54]. EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions, significantly decreasing CO₂ emissions in urban environments [108]. Several studies suggest that EVSS can reduce carbon emissions by 30–50% compared to conventional vehicle-based services [48]. A comprehensive quantitative analysis reveals that a conventional gasoline-powered vehicle emits approximately 2.31 kg of CO₂ per litre of fuel consumed, with a fuel efficiency of 12 km per litre [109]. Assuming an annual travel distance of 15,000 km, a typical fossil-fuel vehicle emits approximately 34.65 tons of CO₂ per year. If EVSS replaces these vehicles, achieving a 30–50% reduction in emissions, the CO₂ savings per vehicle would range from 0.87 to 1.45 tons per year. A metropolitan area adopting 100,000 EVSS would translate to an overall carbon reduction of 87,000 to 145,000 tons of CO₂ annually, equivalent to removing 19,000 to 32,000 gasoline-powered cars from the roads. From an energy efficiency perspective, EVSS optimizes transportation resources through a shared mobility approach, reducing the number of private vehicles on the road [110]. This improvement in efficiency directly lowers fossil fuel consumption and carbon emissions in the transportation sector [48].

Additionally, these environmental benefits translate into better air quality, which reduces public health risks, particularly respiratory diseases that are often associated with urban air pollution [2]. Beyond environmental impacts, EVSS also has significant social implications by enhancing accessibility to sustainable transportation [111]. E-cars, e-bikes, and e-scooters offer more affordable and flexible mobility options compared to private vehicle ownership [4]. This improvement increases transportation accessibility for individuals in low-income groups and communities with limited access to public transit systems.

Moreover, EVSS facilitates the development of multimodal transportation systems by integrating EV solutions with public transportation networks [112]. The adoption of shared mobility models reduces the number of private vehicles on the roads and alleviates traffic congestion. Furthermore, with enhanced operational efficiency, EVSS optimizes the utilization of urban transportation infrastructure [77].

4.10. RQ6 How does EVSS Contribute to Mitigating Urban Challenges, such as Traffic Congestion and Pollution, while Enhancing Access to Sustainable Transportation in Urban Areas?

Traffic congestion remains one of the most pressing challenges in urban areas, particularly in large cities with high vehicle densities [113]. EVSS plays a pivotal role in addressing this issue. Shared mobility services facilitate a paradigm shift from private vehicle ownership to the shared use of EVs [110]. Studies indicate that a single shared EV can replace six to ten private vehicles, significantly reducing the number of vehicles on the road [114].

Integrating digital technology in EVSS enables vehicle usage optimization and route efficiency. These advancements help reduce travel time, energy consumption, and urban traffic density [115]. Moreover, EVSS can be integrated with public transportation systems, such as buses and trains, to enhance first-mile and last-mile mobility [116]. This integration encourages a shift from private vehicle reliance to collective transportation systems, which are more efficient and sustainable [110], thus reducing dependency on private vehicles [117].

Air pollution caused by emissions from conventional vehicles is another critical environmental challenge in urban areas. The adoption of EVSS significantly contributes to improving air quality. Since EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions, they help reduce CO₂, NOx, and particulate matter (PM2.5) [118]. When supported by renewable energy sources, the shared use of EVs further contributes to the decarbonization of the transportation sector. For instance, cities like Amsterdam have demonstrated a reduction of up to 40% in carbon emissions by integrating EVSS into urban mobility networks [119]. As the number of conventional vehicles decreases, pollutant emissions from fossil fuel combustion are minimized, leading to improved public health and a lower prevalence of respiratory disease associated with air pollution [120].

EVSS also significantly enhances access to sustainable transportation systems, especially in urban areas with limited public transport options [110]. These services offer more affordable transportation alternatives compared to private vehicle ownership, thus improving accessibility for individuals from economically disadvantaged groups. Micro-mobility solutions, such as e-Bikes and e-Scooters, provide flexible and convenient mobility options for urban populations [121].

Strategically located infrastructure, such as charging stations, supports sustainable mobility and accelerates the adoption of EVs in metropolitan areas [122]. Integrating EVSS with smart city systems facilitates more efficient and environmentally friendly urban transportation planning [81]. The contributions of EVSS extend beyond mitigating pollution and congestion; they also create positive socioeconomic impacts [123]. Reduced air pollution improves public health and the quality of urban life. Furthermore, EVSS aligns with the vision of sustainable cities by promoting transportation that is efficient, environmentally friendly, and inclusive [124].

5.1. Synthesis of Findings

This section integrates the findings from the four research questions (RQ3, RQ4, RQ5, and RQ6) to provide a comprehensive understanding of the role of EVSS in transforming urban mobility towards sustainability. It focuses on how user satisfaction and convenience influence adoption alongside research evolution, implementation challenges, environmental and social impacts, and contributions to urban issues.

Findings from RQ3 reveal that research on EVSS has evolved significantly, transitioning from conceptual studies to data-driven and technologically advanced approaches. Key drivers of adoption include technological innovations, government policies, and geographical-economic contexts. The availability of charging stations and advancements in battery technology are critical for enhancing user satisfaction. Economic incentives, pro-environmental regulations, and investments in charging infrastructure have been pivotal in the growth of EVSS. Developed countries benefit from strong policy support and advanced technologies. In contrast, developing nations face challenges related to infrastructure and costs, though micro-mobility solutions, such as e-bikes and e-scooters, show promise.

RQ4 identifies various barriers to implementation, including technological limitations, regulatory constraints, and challenges in social acceptance. Despite these obstacles, technological innovations and supportive government policies play a crucial role in overcoming them. Limitations in charging infrastructure and high battery costs remain major hurdles. Financial incentives, technical standardization, and public awareness campaigns can enhance user acceptance. User perceptions of convenience, efficiency, and reliability significantly impact adoption rates, improving satisfaction through fast-charging solutions, optimized routing systems, and supportive government policies.

Findings from RQ5 emphasize the environmental benefits of EVSS, including significant reductions in carbon emissions and urban air pollution due to zero tailpipe emissions. Integrating these services with renewable energy sources further amplifies their positive environmental impact [41]. Additionally, EVSS provides inclusive and flexible mobility solutions, particularly for urban populations with limited access to public transportation. Reducing environmental impact contributes to user satisfaction, while increased accessibility enhances comfort and adoption rates.

RQ6 highlights the role of EVSS in alleviating urban challenges, such as traffic congestion and pollution while improving access to sustainable transportation. The shift from private vehicle ownership to shared EV use reduces the number of vehicles on the road and dependence on fossil fuels. Micro-mobility options, including e-bikes and e-scooters, complement public transport and support the development of more efficient urban transport ecosystems.

Overall, the integration of RQ3, RQ4, RQ5, and RQ6 findings underscores that user satisfaction and convenience are pivotal to the adoption of EVSS. Efficient battery technologies, extensive charging infrastructure, and innovative service solutions enhance user comfort and operational efficiency [21]. Additionally, environmental benefits, such as reduced emissions and improved air quality, provide further incentives for user adoption.

5.2. Limitations

This SLR, conducted using the PRISMA methodology, acknowledges several limitations that may affect the findings and their generalizability. A key limitation is a potential for selection bias due to the inclusion criteria, which may have inadvertently favoured certain types of research, leading to gaps in coverage. Moreover, this SLR relies exclusively on Scopus-indexed articles. While Scopus is a reputable database, excluding other sources such as WoS, IEEE Xplore, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar may have restricted the scope of the review. Future SLRs should incorporate multiple databases to ensure a more comprehensive analysis.

Additionally, findings from this SLR may not be universally applicable across different contexts. Factors such as geographical location, cultural differences, and socioeconomic conditions significantly influence the adoption and perception of EVSS. Furthermore, as this study synthesizes existing literature without direct empirical validation, variations in study methodologies and sample populations may introduce inconsistencies, affecting reliability. Another limitation is the temporal scope—the rapid evolution of EVSS means that past research may not fully capture the latest technological advancements, policy shifts, or market trends. Future research should prioritize regular updates of SLRs to maintain relevance.

5.3. Future Research Directions

To enhance the understanding of EVSS and address existing gaps, several future research directions are proposed:

• Future SLRs should integrate multiple databases beyond Scopus, such as the WoS, IEEE Xplore, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar, to mitigate selection bias and ensure broader literature coverage.
• Research tracking the evolution of EVSS over time can provide insights into how technological advancements, policy changes, and user behaviours shape service adoption and sustainability.
• Examining how EVSS is perceived and adopted across different geographical and socioeconomic contexts can uncover localized challenges and opportunities, informing region-specific policies and implementation strategies.
• Future studies should integrate perspectives from urban planning, environmental science, economics, and social psychology to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing EVSS adoption.
• Qualitative research emphasizing user feedback can identify barriers to adoption and areas for improvement, ensuring services align with consumer expectations.
• Research should assess the effectiveness of government policies and incentives in promoting EVSS, and identify best practices for regulatory frameworks.
• Quantitative approaches, such as effect size estimation and heterogeneity assessment, can enhance the empirical validation of findings across multiple studies, improving reliability and generalizability.
• Future research should explore innovations such as autonomous EV-sharing and smart charging solutions to understand their potential for integration into existing mobility systems.

By pursuing these directions, future research can offer valuable insights to inform policy, enhance service delivery, and foster innovation in electric vehicle shared services (EVSS).